General Biology I — Cells, Genetics and Evolution flashcards
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The first semester of majors biology through its classic experiments and worked problems: biomolecules, membranes, energy, respiration, photosynthesis, signaling, cell division, genetics, gene regulation, biotechnology, Hardy–Weinberg, speciation and phylogeny.
Learn deck · part of General Biology I/II · written against: Standard two-semester majors sequence; OpenStax Biology 2e, consulted as a reference; no text copied. Updated 2026-10-10.
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A side chain carries a carboxyl group, an amino group or a hydroxyl group. Which one makes the molecule an acid, which a base, and which only adds polarity?The carboxyl group (–COOH) gives up H⁺ and acts as an acid; the amino group (–NH₂) picks up H⁺ and acts as a base; the hydroxyl group (–OH) makes a molecule more polar and more water-soluble but is not appreciably acidic.Chemistry of Life
Example: at pH 7 a free amino acid carries –COO⁻ and –NH₃⁺ at the same time. -
How does a cell actually use ATP to drive an endergonic reaction such as making glutamine from glutamate and ammonia?ATP phosphorylates glutamate, forming a reactive phosphorylated intermediate; ammonia then displaces the phosphate to give glutamine. The two steps together are exergonic — this energy coupling through a phosphorylated intermediate is how ATP's energy is used rather than lost as heat.Metabolism and Enzymes
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In the overall equation for aerobic respiration of glucose, which reactant is oxidized and which is reduced, and how can you tell?Glucose is oxidized to CO₂ — its carbons lose hydrogen atoms and their electrons — and oxygen is reduced to water as it gains them.Cellular Respiration
Mnemonic: OIL RIG — oxidation is loss, reduction is gain (of electrons). -
Earl Sutherland found that epinephrine activated glycogen phosphorylase in liver extracts only when the membrane fraction was present, and that a small, heat-stable molecule then carried the effect. What had he discovered?The second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP): epinephrine binding a membrane receptor makes adenylyl cyclase produce cAMP, which relays the signal into the cytoplasm. It established that a hormone need not enter a cell to change what happens inside it.Cell Signaling
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When a cell in S phase was fused with a cell in G1, the G1 nucleus began replicating its DNA early. What did such cell-fusion experiments show?The cytoplasm carries chemical signals that drive the cell cycle: S-phase cytoplasm pushed the G1 nucleus into S, and an M-phase partner made any nucleus condense its chromosomes. Those signals were later identified as cyclin–Cdk complexes such as MPF.Cell Cycle and Mitosis
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In the cross AaBbCc × AabbCc, with all three genes assorting independently, what is the probability of an aabbcc offspring?Multiply the gene-by-gene probabilities: aa = 1/4, bb = 1/2 (from Bb × bb) and cc = 1/4, so the answer is 1/32.Mendelian and Non-Mendelian Genetics
Why: the product rule handles independent events, so no 32-box Punnett square is needed. -
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty treated the heat-killed S-strain extract with protease, RNase or DNase before mixing it with live R-strain bacteria. Which treatment stopped transformation, and what did it show?Only DNase destroyed the extract's ability to turn R cells into virulent S cells; protease and RNase did not. So Griffith's transforming principle was DNA — early direct evidence that DNA carries hereditary information.DNA Structure and Replication
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How do dideoxynucleotides make Sanger sequencing work?A dideoxynucleotide lacks the 3′-OH needed to attach the next nucleotide, so whenever polymerase adds one, the chain stops. Copies that stop at every position, each tagged by its final base, are sorted by length, and the order of the ends reads off the sequence.Biotechnology
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A population of 500 has 320 AA, 160 Aa and 20 aa. What are the allele frequencies, and is it in Hardy–Weinberg proportions?Count alleles: p = (2 × 320 + 160) / 1000 = 0.8 and q = 0.2. Expected counts are p² × 500 = 320, 2pq × 500 = 160 and q² × 500 = 20 — exactly what is observed, so the population is in Hardy–Weinberg proportions.Evolution and Population Genetics
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Is the traditional class Reptilia, which leaves out birds, a monophyletic group?No — it is paraphyletic: it includes the common ancestor of lizards, crocodiles and turtles but omits one of that ancestor's descendant lineages, the birds. Crocodiles are in fact more closely related to birds than to lizards.Phylogeny
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- OpenStax Biology 2e, consulted as a reference; no text copied.
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